John Carberry
New member
Shadows of Holy Orders, by John Carberry
After 400 years of slavery in Egypt, the Israelites had grown beyond a mere family to a
large community (Gn 15:13, Ex 12:40). Israel would become a sign of the later gathering of all
nations.1 Many of the Israelites still believed and followed God, but like any large group or
assembly, they needed leadership. God provided them with the leadership of Moses (Ex 3:10),
the prophet and lawgiver as well as with Aaron, the high priest. Moses therefore directed or
governed them and spoke on behalf of God (Nm 12:6-8), like a trusted prophet (Ex 19:9, 20:22).
He instructed them regarding the law and told them to pass this knowledge down to their
children (Dt 4:10). Aaron was to offer sacrifice to God, the duty of a priest. Before Aaron and
his sons could offer sacrifice, they had to be ordained or brought into the order (Ex 29:1-9, 44-46,
Sir 45:15-17), a seven-day process (Lv 8:33). This required that they first be washed with water
(like Baptism) and then anointed with oil (Ex 29:4-7, 30:30, 40:12-15, Lv 8:6-12). The role of
the priesthood was an important responsibility, so that at certain times priests were forbidden to
consume wine or strong drink in order to be able to distinguish between the sacred and the
profane, what is clean and unclean, and to properly teach the Israelites the laws that God gave to
Moses (Lv 10:9-11). The priest bore the guilt of the entire community and made atonement for
them before the Lord (Lv 10:17, Nm 17:11). Pope Benedict XVI says: “The truth is the bath that
purifies them; the truth is the robe and the anointing they need.”2 This anointing began what
became the perpetual priesthood (Ex 29:9, 40:15). In the Old Testament, anointing became the
external symbol of the gift of the Spirit.3 From the time of Moses, the People of God observed
fixed feasts or festivals (Ex 23:14-19, 34:23-24, Lv 23:1-2, 37-38, Dt 16:16-17, 1 Kgs 9:25, 2
Chr 8:12-13, Ezr 3:5, 6:19-22, 1 Mc 10:34),4 such as Passover (Lv 23:4-8, Nm 9:1-14, 28:16, Dt
16:1-8, Jos 5:10, 2 Kgs 23:21-23, 2 Chr 30:1-5, 13-21, 35:1-19, Ez 45:18-24, Lk 2:41, Jn 2:13),
or the feast of Unleavened Bread (Lk 22:1, Acts 12:3, 20:6), Pentecost, or the Feast of Weeks
(Ex 34:22, Lv 23:15-21, Nm 28:26-31, Dt 16:9-12, Tb 2:1, Acts 20:16) and the Feast of Booths
(Lv 23:33-36, 39-43, Nm 29:12-38, Dt 16:13-15, 31:10-13, Ezr 3:4, Neh 8:13-18, 2 Mc 1:9, Ez
45:25, Zec 14:16, Jn 7:2).
With the Israelites in the desert, one can see the beginnings of ecclesia (Latin for
assembly or convocation), from the root of the Greek word ekkalein (to call forth or call out of)
(Acts 19:39). The word can refer to the persons who represent the institution in its totality. The
Greek word ekklesia traces back to the verb ekkalein. In early Greek communities, it meant an
assembly of people called by the herald to discuss a particular topic. It was applied in the
religious sense in the Greek translation of the Septuagint, where the term means the community
of people of Israel – the people chosen by God.5 This gathering together of the Church traces
back to the moment of the first sin as God’s reaction to the chaos caused by sin.6
When Moses sees the fire did not consume the burning bush (Ex 3:2), God reveals to
Moses his mission to lead the Israelites out of Egypt (Ex 3:10) with his brother Aaron to assist
him (Ex 4:14-16). Aaron later became the high priest with his sons ordained as priests (Ex 29:1-
9, 29-30, 40:12-15, Lv 8:1-13, Heb 5:1-4). But the Israelites were a large group, numbering six
hundred thousand soldiers, not counting the women and children (Ex 12:37, Nm 11:21). Jethro,
Moses’ father-in-law, counseled Moses that he cannot perform his duties unassisted. He must
appoint officers over various groups and sub-groups so that they can assist him in his duties and
only come to him when they are unable to resolve disputes (Ex 18:13-27, Dt 1:13-17, 2 Chr
19:8-11). Moses heeded Jethro’s advice and appointed officers to various size groups and subgroups.
Moses selected seventy elders of the community who were to assist him in his duties.
God took some of the spirit that he had bestowed on Moses and conferred it on these seventy
elders (Nm 11:16-17, 24-30). However, as time elapsed, some of the Israelites came to question
the authority of Moses. His own sister, Miriam, questions his authority: “Is it through Moses
alone that the Lord speaks? Does he not speak through us also” (Nm 12:2)? God told Miriam
that Moses bears his trust, and God turned Miriam into a snow-white leper (Nm 12:7-10, Dt
24:9). Later, Korah, and his 250 followers, rebelled against Moses’ authority, and a fiery
earthquake consumed them (Nm 16:1-3, 31-35, 26:10, Dt 11:6, Ps 106:17-18, Sir 45:18-19, Jude
1:11). The Israelites continued to rebel against God’s anointed leaders throughout the Old
Testament (1 Kgs 12:19, Ps 78:8, 56-58, Ez 2:3-7, 12:2-3, Dt 31:27, Jos 22:16, Ez 3:27, 5:5-7,
20:8, 13).
Appointing successors is a necessary part of leadership. As the end of Moses’ life came
near, God told him to appoint Joshua as his successor (Dt 31:14-15). Moses appointed Joshua
(Dt 31:23, 34:9) by laying his hands on Joshua who was filled with the spirit of wisdom, and
Israel gave him their obedience (Nm 34:9). Anyone who rebels against Joshua shall also be put
to death (Jos 1:18). Joshua’s authority was unquestioned because God exalted him before Israel
just as he had done with Moses (Jos 3:7, 4:14). The sons of Aaron succeeded in the Aaronic
priesthood (Ex 29:29-30, Nm 3:2-3, 8:1-13, 18:1, 2 Chr 29:21, 31:2, 16-19, 35:2, Sir 45:13) and
his leadership role as high priest (Nm 20:26-28, Dt 10:6, 2 Chr 19:11, Neh 12:10-11, 1 Mc 10:38,
2 Mc 15:12, Hg 2:4, Zec 3:1). Perpetual ordinances applied to him and to his descendants (Ex
12:14, 17, 27:21, 28:43). Several centuries later, Israel asks God for a king. Reluctantly, God
allows Israel to have a king, and he selects Saul. Samuel anoints Saul as the first king of Israel
(1 Sm 10:1, 15:17). Samuel later anoints David with oil in preparation for his kingship (1 Sm
16:12-13, 2 Sm 5:3, Ps 23:5, 89:21-22, 1 Chr 11:3). Zadok, the priest, anoints King Solomon as
David’s successor (1 Kgs 1:34, 39, 1 Chr 29:22). Elijah appoints Elisha to succeed him as
prophet (1 Kgs 19:16-21, Sir 48:12-14). Elisha later anoints Jehu as king of Israel (2 Kgs 9:6).
Israel also later appointed evil kings without God’s approval (Hos 8:4). Christ recognizes the
authority of the scribes and Pharisees when he tells his disciples to do what they tell you because
they sit on the chair of Moses (Mt 23:2-3, Acts 23:1-5, Ex 22:27, Heb 13:7, 17, Jn 11:49-52).
The apostles practice apostolic succession when they replace Judas Iscariot, the first of the
apostles to die, with Matthias (Acts 1:15-26, Ps 109:8). The apostles later anoint other bishops,
priests and deacons (Acts 6:6, 13:2-3, 2 Tm 2:2) based on merit rather than family ties (1 Sm
2:30).7
The priesthood is not new in the New Testament. Melchizedek is a priest forever (Ps
110:4, Heb 7:17, 21) who brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram (Gn 14:18-20). Abram
was later renamed Abraham because he was considered to be the father of a multitude of nations
(Gn 17:5). The Israelites were a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Ex 19:6). However,
within Israel, God chose the tribe of Levi to set apart for liturgical service (Nm 8:14, 26, 18:1, 6,
Dt 10:8, Jos 3:13, 17, 1 Chr 23:13).8 God himself would be Levi’s inheritance (Nm 1:48-53,
18:20, Dt 10:9, Jos 13:33, 18:7, Ez 44:28). Even after Israel’s exile, priests were brought back to
Israel to teach the people how to properly venerate the Lord (1 Kgs 17:25-28).
The priesthood often showed insincerity and irreverence in the Old Testament, and this
practice continued through the time of Christ. Nadab and Abihu, Aaron’s sons, offered
unauthorized fire and God took their lives (Lv 10:1-2, Nm 3:4, 26:61, 1 Chr 24:2). The sons of
Eli were priests (1 Sm 1:3), and they were wicked because they did not respect the Lord or their
duties as priests (1 Sm 2:12-17). A prophet revealed to Eli that his sons, Hophni and Phinehas
shall both die on the same day, and so it happened (1 Sm 2:34, 4:11). Priests needed to be able
to distinguish the sacred from the profane and teach the Israelites the difference (Lv 10:10-11, Ez
22:26). When they offered defiled sacrifices and lesser offerings, the priests of the Old
Testament showed insincerity and disrespect to God (Mal 1:6-14, Lv 22:17-25, Dt 15:20, 17:1, 1
Mc 7:5-6, 21-25). When the priests taught what was not in accordance with the laws of God,
they corrupted their roles as messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:6-9, Dt 17:9-10, 33:10). Christ
shows how the priests and leaders’ authority remained because they sit on the chair of Moses,
even though their examples did not match their teachings (Mt 23:2-3, Acts 23:1-5, Ps 50:16-17).
John Carberry is the author of Parables: Catholic Apologetics Through Sacred Scripture
(2003) and Sacraments: Signs, Symbols and Significance (2023).
1 CCC, 762.
2 Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, Part Two, Holy Week, p. 89.
3 John Paul II, Dominum Et Vivificantem (Lord and Giver or Life), 16.
4 John Paul II, CCC, 1164 & 2586.
5 Sandra Mazzolini, “The Church as Mystery, Sacrament, and People of God,” in Catholic Engagement with World Religions (New York: Orbis
Books, 2010), p. 262. CCC, 751-752 & 777.
6 CCC, 761.
7 CCC, 1087. Leo XIII, Satis Cognitum (Well Known), 8.
8 CCC, 1539.
After 400 years of slavery in Egypt, the Israelites had grown beyond a mere family to a
large community (Gn 15:13, Ex 12:40). Israel would become a sign of the later gathering of all
nations.1 Many of the Israelites still believed and followed God, but like any large group or
assembly, they needed leadership. God provided them with the leadership of Moses (Ex 3:10),
the prophet and lawgiver as well as with Aaron, the high priest. Moses therefore directed or
governed them and spoke on behalf of God (Nm 12:6-8), like a trusted prophet (Ex 19:9, 20:22).
He instructed them regarding the law and told them to pass this knowledge down to their
children (Dt 4:10). Aaron was to offer sacrifice to God, the duty of a priest. Before Aaron and
his sons could offer sacrifice, they had to be ordained or brought into the order (Ex 29:1-9, 44-46,
Sir 45:15-17), a seven-day process (Lv 8:33). This required that they first be washed with water
(like Baptism) and then anointed with oil (Ex 29:4-7, 30:30, 40:12-15, Lv 8:6-12). The role of
the priesthood was an important responsibility, so that at certain times priests were forbidden to
consume wine or strong drink in order to be able to distinguish between the sacred and the
profane, what is clean and unclean, and to properly teach the Israelites the laws that God gave to
Moses (Lv 10:9-11). The priest bore the guilt of the entire community and made atonement for
them before the Lord (Lv 10:17, Nm 17:11). Pope Benedict XVI says: “The truth is the bath that
purifies them; the truth is the robe and the anointing they need.”2 This anointing began what
became the perpetual priesthood (Ex 29:9, 40:15). In the Old Testament, anointing became the
external symbol of the gift of the Spirit.3 From the time of Moses, the People of God observed
fixed feasts or festivals (Ex 23:14-19, 34:23-24, Lv 23:1-2, 37-38, Dt 16:16-17, 1 Kgs 9:25, 2
Chr 8:12-13, Ezr 3:5, 6:19-22, 1 Mc 10:34),4 such as Passover (Lv 23:4-8, Nm 9:1-14, 28:16, Dt
16:1-8, Jos 5:10, 2 Kgs 23:21-23, 2 Chr 30:1-5, 13-21, 35:1-19, Ez 45:18-24, Lk 2:41, Jn 2:13),
or the feast of Unleavened Bread (Lk 22:1, Acts 12:3, 20:6), Pentecost, or the Feast of Weeks
(Ex 34:22, Lv 23:15-21, Nm 28:26-31, Dt 16:9-12, Tb 2:1, Acts 20:16) and the Feast of Booths
(Lv 23:33-36, 39-43, Nm 29:12-38, Dt 16:13-15, 31:10-13, Ezr 3:4, Neh 8:13-18, 2 Mc 1:9, Ez
45:25, Zec 14:16, Jn 7:2).
With the Israelites in the desert, one can see the beginnings of ecclesia (Latin for
assembly or convocation), from the root of the Greek word ekkalein (to call forth or call out of)
(Acts 19:39). The word can refer to the persons who represent the institution in its totality. The
Greek word ekklesia traces back to the verb ekkalein. In early Greek communities, it meant an
assembly of people called by the herald to discuss a particular topic. It was applied in the
religious sense in the Greek translation of the Septuagint, where the term means the community
of people of Israel – the people chosen by God.5 This gathering together of the Church traces
back to the moment of the first sin as God’s reaction to the chaos caused by sin.6
When Moses sees the fire did not consume the burning bush (Ex 3:2), God reveals to
Moses his mission to lead the Israelites out of Egypt (Ex 3:10) with his brother Aaron to assist
him (Ex 4:14-16). Aaron later became the high priest with his sons ordained as priests (Ex 29:1-
9, 29-30, 40:12-15, Lv 8:1-13, Heb 5:1-4). But the Israelites were a large group, numbering six
hundred thousand soldiers, not counting the women and children (Ex 12:37, Nm 11:21). Jethro,
Moses’ father-in-law, counseled Moses that he cannot perform his duties unassisted. He must
appoint officers over various groups and sub-groups so that they can assist him in his duties and
only come to him when they are unable to resolve disputes (Ex 18:13-27, Dt 1:13-17, 2 Chr
19:8-11). Moses heeded Jethro’s advice and appointed officers to various size groups and subgroups.
Moses selected seventy elders of the community who were to assist him in his duties.
God took some of the spirit that he had bestowed on Moses and conferred it on these seventy
elders (Nm 11:16-17, 24-30). However, as time elapsed, some of the Israelites came to question
the authority of Moses. His own sister, Miriam, questions his authority: “Is it through Moses
alone that the Lord speaks? Does he not speak through us also” (Nm 12:2)? God told Miriam
that Moses bears his trust, and God turned Miriam into a snow-white leper (Nm 12:7-10, Dt
24:9). Later, Korah, and his 250 followers, rebelled against Moses’ authority, and a fiery
earthquake consumed them (Nm 16:1-3, 31-35, 26:10, Dt 11:6, Ps 106:17-18, Sir 45:18-19, Jude
1:11). The Israelites continued to rebel against God’s anointed leaders throughout the Old
Testament (1 Kgs 12:19, Ps 78:8, 56-58, Ez 2:3-7, 12:2-3, Dt 31:27, Jos 22:16, Ez 3:27, 5:5-7,
20:8, 13).
Appointing successors is a necessary part of leadership. As the end of Moses’ life came
near, God told him to appoint Joshua as his successor (Dt 31:14-15). Moses appointed Joshua
(Dt 31:23, 34:9) by laying his hands on Joshua who was filled with the spirit of wisdom, and
Israel gave him their obedience (Nm 34:9). Anyone who rebels against Joshua shall also be put
to death (Jos 1:18). Joshua’s authority was unquestioned because God exalted him before Israel
just as he had done with Moses (Jos 3:7, 4:14). The sons of Aaron succeeded in the Aaronic
priesthood (Ex 29:29-30, Nm 3:2-3, 8:1-13, 18:1, 2 Chr 29:21, 31:2, 16-19, 35:2, Sir 45:13) and
his leadership role as high priest (Nm 20:26-28, Dt 10:6, 2 Chr 19:11, Neh 12:10-11, 1 Mc 10:38,
2 Mc 15:12, Hg 2:4, Zec 3:1). Perpetual ordinances applied to him and to his descendants (Ex
12:14, 17, 27:21, 28:43). Several centuries later, Israel asks God for a king. Reluctantly, God
allows Israel to have a king, and he selects Saul. Samuel anoints Saul as the first king of Israel
(1 Sm 10:1, 15:17). Samuel later anoints David with oil in preparation for his kingship (1 Sm
16:12-13, 2 Sm 5:3, Ps 23:5, 89:21-22, 1 Chr 11:3). Zadok, the priest, anoints King Solomon as
David’s successor (1 Kgs 1:34, 39, 1 Chr 29:22). Elijah appoints Elisha to succeed him as
prophet (1 Kgs 19:16-21, Sir 48:12-14). Elisha later anoints Jehu as king of Israel (2 Kgs 9:6).
Israel also later appointed evil kings without God’s approval (Hos 8:4). Christ recognizes the
authority of the scribes and Pharisees when he tells his disciples to do what they tell you because
they sit on the chair of Moses (Mt 23:2-3, Acts 23:1-5, Ex 22:27, Heb 13:7, 17, Jn 11:49-52).
The apostles practice apostolic succession when they replace Judas Iscariot, the first of the
apostles to die, with Matthias (Acts 1:15-26, Ps 109:8). The apostles later anoint other bishops,
priests and deacons (Acts 6:6, 13:2-3, 2 Tm 2:2) based on merit rather than family ties (1 Sm
2:30).7
The priesthood is not new in the New Testament. Melchizedek is a priest forever (Ps
110:4, Heb 7:17, 21) who brought out bread and wine and blessed Abram (Gn 14:18-20). Abram
was later renamed Abraham because he was considered to be the father of a multitude of nations
(Gn 17:5). The Israelites were a kingdom of priests and a holy nation (Ex 19:6). However,
within Israel, God chose the tribe of Levi to set apart for liturgical service (Nm 8:14, 26, 18:1, 6,
Dt 10:8, Jos 3:13, 17, 1 Chr 23:13).8 God himself would be Levi’s inheritance (Nm 1:48-53,
18:20, Dt 10:9, Jos 13:33, 18:7, Ez 44:28). Even after Israel’s exile, priests were brought back to
Israel to teach the people how to properly venerate the Lord (1 Kgs 17:25-28).
The priesthood often showed insincerity and irreverence in the Old Testament, and this
practice continued through the time of Christ. Nadab and Abihu, Aaron’s sons, offered
unauthorized fire and God took their lives (Lv 10:1-2, Nm 3:4, 26:61, 1 Chr 24:2). The sons of
Eli were priests (1 Sm 1:3), and they were wicked because they did not respect the Lord or their
duties as priests (1 Sm 2:12-17). A prophet revealed to Eli that his sons, Hophni and Phinehas
shall both die on the same day, and so it happened (1 Sm 2:34, 4:11). Priests needed to be able
to distinguish the sacred from the profane and teach the Israelites the difference (Lv 10:10-11, Ez
22:26). When they offered defiled sacrifices and lesser offerings, the priests of the Old
Testament showed insincerity and disrespect to God (Mal 1:6-14, Lv 22:17-25, Dt 15:20, 17:1, 1
Mc 7:5-6, 21-25). When the priests taught what was not in accordance with the laws of God,
they corrupted their roles as messengers of the Lord (Mal 2:6-9, Dt 17:9-10, 33:10). Christ
shows how the priests and leaders’ authority remained because they sit on the chair of Moses,
even though their examples did not match their teachings (Mt 23:2-3, Acts 23:1-5, Ps 50:16-17).
John Carberry is the author of Parables: Catholic Apologetics Through Sacred Scripture
(2003) and Sacraments: Signs, Symbols and Significance (2023).
1 CCC, 762.
2 Benedict XVI, Jesus of Nazareth, Part Two, Holy Week, p. 89.
3 John Paul II, Dominum Et Vivificantem (Lord and Giver or Life), 16.
4 John Paul II, CCC, 1164 & 2586.
5 Sandra Mazzolini, “The Church as Mystery, Sacrament, and People of God,” in Catholic Engagement with World Religions (New York: Orbis
Books, 2010), p. 262. CCC, 751-752 & 777.
6 CCC, 761.
7 CCC, 1087. Leo XIII, Satis Cognitum (Well Known), 8.
8 CCC, 1539.