Is Faith necessary to know that God exists?

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Faith requires Reason. It is not a blind leap into the darkness based on what someone else has told us.

Vatican II says that man can know that God exists by the “light of natural reason”. In other words, it does not take Faith to know that God exists.

Reason will bring us to the door. Faith allows us to enter through the door and see what is in the room 🙂
And yet there are so many reasonable people, who have no faith.

The catholic church can claim that man can know God exists by the light of natural reason, but there is no actual reason to believe this claim.

I have yet to see any reasonable argument about the existance of God, that cannot be refuted by one argument or another, or by simply saying…we do not actually have an answer.

Whenever I hear this, it sounds like wishful thinking. It’s not human reason, it’s humans claiming God is the answer, when reasoning fails.
 
“Faith” is ambiguous. If you mean the Theological virtue of faith, then the answer is no. There are certain natural faiths that are necessary for the belief in God, and necessary, furthermore, for human thought. One such necessary bits of natural faith is the belief that our minds are able to perceive reality as it really exists. If we don’t accept that truth on faith (for it cannot be proven) then we logically deny ourselves the right to think at all in any meaningful way.

But God’s existence clearly can be known, as is evident throughout history for most people, even though they lacked Christian Theological faith. What is the point then of Theological Faith?

Well, the Theological virtue of faith gives us knowledge of specifically Christian truths, such as Christ’s divinity, birth, death, resurrection, and so forth. It is the kinds of things we can’t know just by being human … they need to be revealed to us.

It is the difference between being a Theist and a Christian. Just because you can know that God exists by natural reason, doesn’t mean you are going to be saved. You also need to have faith about Christ, which is only possible by faith. Mere knowledge in the existence of God is insufficient for your salvation. You need to know Christ, by faith. There. There’s your answer.
 
Yes, speaking as a very formerly zealous proselytizing Catholic, I would say that in fact, those who question their faith by reason are far mor reasonable than the cradle and habitual faithful, at least, of any religion or any belief system.

As for "But God’s existence clearly can be known, as is evident throughout history for most people, even though they lacked Christian Theological faith. What is the point then of Theological Faith?

Well, the Theological virtue of faith gives us knowledge of specifically Christian truths, such as Christ’s divinity, birth, death, resurrection, and so forth. It is the kinds of things we can’t know just by being human … they need to be revealed to us.

It is the difference between being a Theist and a Christian. Just because you can know that God exists by natural reason, doesn’t mean you are going to be saved. You also need to have faith about Christ, which is only possible by faith. Mere knowledge in the existence of God is insufficient for your salvation. You need to know Christ, by faith. There. There’s your answer."

That is no answer, but simply an assuagement for those who already believe, the key and operative word being “about.” Faith is faith because it is reasoned on unprovable or at least controvertible premises, otherwise it would be called “knowledge.” It is the dismaying habit of a large number of vocal religionists of any stripe to say that “What I believe is TRUE!” Well… yes, that may be subjectively so within the validity of one’s personal mental/emotional machinations. We create the world we live in and act in by projection of learned assumptions, only being brought up short by shocks dealt by actuality that are incontrovertibel. Yet faith can even circumvent those with fabrications of explanation rather than use them for mining for knowledge.

Does all this mean that I am an atheist or agnostic? No, not at all. I am an absolutely conviced theist. But I am sorely disappointed by what people on here and elsewheree put forth as arguments for belief. In my estimation they are, for the most part, prophylactics
against involvement in religion, and therefore useful only in that regard.

As for people who are already “there,” and using these arguments internally, well and good. I urge stepping up the intensity of your beliefs to their ultimate level. That may be your only way from them.
 
Yes, speaking as a very formerly zealous proselytizing Catholic, I would say that in fact, those who question their faith by reason are far mor reasonable than the cradle and habitual faithful, at least, of any religion or any belief system.

As for "But God’s existence clearly can be known, as is evident throughout history for most people, even though they lacked Christian Theological faith. What is the point then of Theological Faith?

Well, the Theological virtue of faith gives us knowledge of specifically Christian truths, such as Christ’s divinity, birth, death, resurrection, and so forth. It is the kinds of things we can’t know just by being human … they need to be revealed to us.

It is the difference between being a Theist and a Christian. Just because you can know that God exists by natural reason, doesn’t mean you are going to be saved. You also need to have faith about Christ, which is only possible by faith. Mere knowledge in the existence of God is insufficient for your salvation. You need to know Christ, by faith. There. There’s your answer."

That is no answer, but simply an assuagement for those who already believe, the key and operative word being “about.” Faith is faith because it is reasoned on unprovable or at least controvertible premises, otherwise it would be called “knowledge.” It is the dismaying habit of a large number of vocal religionists of any stripe to say that “What I believe is TRUE!” Well… yes, that may be subjectively so within the validity of one’s personal mental/emotional machinations. We create the world we live in and act in by projection of learned assumptions, only being brought up short by shocks dealt by actuality that are incontrovertibel. Yet faith can even circumvent those with fabrications of explanation rather than use them for mining for knowledge.

Does all this mean that I am an atheist or agnostic? No, not at all. I am an absolutely conviced theist. But I am sorely disappointed by what people on here and elsewheree put forth as arguments for belief. In my estimation they are, for the most part, prophylactics
against involvement in religion, and therefore useful only in that regard.

As for people who are already “there,” and using these arguments internally, well and good. I urge stepping up the intensity of your beliefs to their ultimate level. That may be your only way from them.
If I understand you correcly Detales, we are on the same page. We are saved by what we love (our will) … not by what we know (our intellect). But once a person is in love, the more you know of the other person, the more there is to love.
 
Quote: Faith is faith because it is reasoned on unprovable or at least controvertible premises, otherwise it would be called “knowledge.”

Wrong, wrong, wrong. But I don’t blame you, because you probably heard something like this from someone who didn’t know what he was talking about.

Faith is a kind of knowledge. Specifically, it is a shadowy knowledge that you cannot prove (so, you got it partially right actually). Protestants claim that faith is trust, or something like that, but Martin Luther was the one to start that idea. The Catholic Church has always held that it is knowledge, specifically a special, unprovable, and even imperfect knowledge because it doesn’t show you the whole picture of what it’s talking about. Many Catholic saints will confirm this, including Aquinas and Augustine. When we are in heaven, we will no longer have faith, because we will have perfect knowledge about God’s nature (because faith is imperfect knowledge).

Also, someone said that “we are saved by love and not by faith” or something like that. It depends what you mean by that.

Quickly, this is how the Theological Virtues work (and this is one of the most useful, unclouding thing I ever learned in theology … maybe) …

In order to love something, you first have to know about it. However, the vice versa is not necessarily true. You can know about something without loving it. Thus, knowledge is necessary for love, but not necessarily the other way around.

Also, in order to hope for something (that is, to strive toward something, in summary) you must also know about it first. You need at least a little bit of knowledge about something before you can decide to hope for it.

To cut to the chase, Charity (which is love of God) requires Hope (which is a working toward God), which requires Faith (which is knowing God). There are different levels of mortal sins, where one can lose charity, or charity and hope, or charity and hope and faith. Never can you have, for example, charity without faith. You, however, must have all theological virtues in order to be saved. Thus, the Protestant Theology of being saved by Faith alone is wrong because you must also have Hope and Charity to be saved, otherwise you simply have knowledge of God without loving or even hoping for God.

Lastly, when I say faith is knowledge of God … particularly, it’s knowledge about God’s divine nature, which can only be known by divinely revealed faith. Knowledge about God’s existence, however, can be known without divinely revealed faith. In fact, it can be proved.

That’s all I gotta say. Hope that answers some questions.
 
The fact that God exists is known by reason, see St. Thomas Aquinas’ Quinquae Viae (Five ways, five arguments which prove the existence of God a priori).

The existence of God was a pre-Christian topic being discussed by Aristotle and Plato, St. Thomas wanted to establish the existence of God based on reason alone, and used Aristotle as a base (not “Baptizing” Aristotle as some people erroneously claim) but Aquinas applied his own brilliant, brilliant, thoughts, and we see God is clearly provable by reason.

Some “attributes” of God that St. Aquinas showed were provable by reason were that God could not be moved because then something would have to have existed before him and because everything is dependent on God this could not be. Also God must be completely simple because if he were made up of parts then those parts would of have to have been made and because God is not made this is impossible. There are several others which I suggest you read in his Compendium.

However some “attributes” of God have to be taken as a matter of Faith. “Attributes” such as the Holy Trinity.

So we see the existence of God is known by reason, but faith is still needed to understand him completely. (Notice you can’t know different “parts” of God because he has no “parts!” :D).

Laus Deo
 
To several posters:

Dear Ones,

A) '56, we are very much on the same page. Your realization is of a different order of experience than the ordinary ways of faith, no matter how strong or by what means. What differences we might have in expressing it, I feel are for the most part intrinsic in the English language, it not encompassing certain modes of perception, knowledge, and reasoning. What remains is perhaps an encultured difference in manner of expression. So, short answer, yes. If you are up to it, David Bohm treats of these linguistic deficiencies in his Wholeness and the Implicate Order.

B) “Wrong, wrong, wrong. But I don’t blame you, because you probably heard something like this from someone who didn’t know what he was talking about.”~~Areo

Really? Like myself? Please see forums.catholic-questions.org/showthread.php?p=5346239#post5346239 (sorry, don’t know that neat trick for compressing urls. Help?) I guess, if you read that, you might see that I’m being blamed for having integrity with my experience. But here you open one of the biggest can of Worms (that’s a pun) about faith ever. Simply put, it is that in our desire to be right in our own eyes we use our ability to “behave as if” to construct a world view we then label “knowledge.” It is the old self-verification syndrom, even if a degree of the data used for the construction are accurate to fact. 2+2 is verifiabe knoledge, if we are calculating in a base-10 system. I have been to Montreal is knowledge by expereince that may not encomass a large base of factual knowledge. Though I “know” facts about China, I have not been there and can claim only limited intellectual knowledge and no knowledge by experience. If I have faith, I might have reason by trust to act on it by reason of experience of the one I trust, but those reasons may not be accurate, useful or even true, despite good intentions all around. Faith in a system or world view may be, again, based on reason, but that reason is internal in most cases to that system, therefoer perhaps entirely valid, but not necessarily true. And there is yet another sort of knowledge, nnot commonly invoked, that is knowledge by realization. Big catagory, we won’t parse it here.

Ultimately we have to agree with MBE, that “False premise is false conclusion.” I submit that “knowledge” by faith, it being based on contrivertible premises, even Catholicism, is not knowledge. protestations about scripture and tradition notwithstanding. It is an adult verson of “let’s pretend.” There is nothing wrong with that, in fact, it is a grandly useful tool we use to get along within ourselves and with others. Unfortunately, agian, those very useful and practiacal “pretends” are to often too parochial. Here I invoke the rule of commonality, but won’t go into it here or yet.

So, as wonderrful and useful as faith might be, it is distinctly not knowledge proper. It is for sure not even remotely in the catagory of knowledge by Identity as pointed to by '56, myself, One, and perhaps a few others on these fora. That is only reportage of experience by Catholics and others of something called in some circles “radical understanding.” In this case, I strongly urge you to look up the etymological root of “radical.”

Areo, your "…someone said that “we are saved by love and not by faith” or something like that" is actually "We are saved by what we love (our will) … not by what we know (our intellect)."~~'56. It appears in the post exactly before yours, and I trust that in other academic proofs, especially your deep understanding of your faith, you are somewhat more dilligent in persuing facts than this example. I trust this is especially true of your working knowledge of how people, including Catholcs, acquire and hold their faiths.

"* (and this is one of the most useful, unclouding thing I ever learned in theology … maybe) …* by far most operative word: “maybe.” Both your following statement and dynamic are at least incomplete in significant ways. In stating that in order to love something you must know about it, “about” includes neither complete nor even competent knowledge of the object. Same hold for “know,” as knowing is often userped, as we see on these fora, by faith or belief. Two strikes against.

As for not needing love in order to “know,” it would be useful to recognize then that such a dynamic is excluive of the Foundational Love that has us even here. My guess? '56 is engaging the latter, FL.

As for hope, I guess what you said works. When I start to sculpt, I don’t know what will come. However, I do know that Answer IS, so I listen very carefully.

What is difficult about your idea of “the chase” is such prolific usage of words like “about, of, toward,” and especially “about.” So, I have to conclude from the nature of your language as compared to '56, you only think you are playing on the same feild. The kind of “proof” of God you might serve up is for those who already believe by means of your theo-logical virtues. Some may not need such thought proof and speak of virtues as extensions rather than means. Perhaps you are dealing with one of them?

C) Same thing goes about my favorite Saint’s five proofs, DG. They work for the faithful. As for "…Aquinas applied his own brilliant, brilliant, thoughts, and we see God is clearly provable by reason only led to his dismissal by relaization of his works “as straw.” Hmmmm. Realization? or Brilliant, Brilliant thughts? I would guess that the thoughts were his scaffolding to his pinacle realization. At least he left his stage fot the ascent of others, but they seem to get stuck playing on the steps, if you get my drift. And yet, you say:

“*(Notice you can’t know different “parts” of God because he has no “parts!” ).
*” Halejalooya, Brother. THAT “part” is absolutely True. Thanks for saying it so clearly.
 
And yet there are so many reasonable people, who have no faith.

The catholic church can claim that man can know God exists by the light of natural reason, but there is no actual reason to believe this claim.

I have yet to see any reasonable argument about the existance of God, that cannot be refuted by one argument or another, or by simply saying…we do not actually have an answer.

Whenever I hear this, it sounds like wishful thinking. It’s not human reason, it’s humans claiming God is the answer, when reasoning fails.
Dameedna,

You might be pleased to know that I stuck up for you in another thread. Please go to the thread “Why is God so mean”. Someone there made a comment about athiests going to hell if they do not believe in God before they die. I refuted this and stand by this. I am not one to share that point of view that all athiests want nothing to do with God. That is not a correct understanding or view of an athiest in my opinion. I could say alot more, but I have to run to work. You might like to read what else I said about defending athiests in the other thread.
 
When the writers of the catechism wrote that we can perceive God exists by natural reason, the irony is that they were writing from a position of pre-existing faith. Before they made that statement, they already had faith, so they were biased.

Faith involves the will. To believe in God then also involves being willing to believe God exists. For an atheist, there is an unwillingness, whether active or passive. So despite having natural reason, their will negates the possibility of faith. I used to be an atheist, and I know my will was involved ie. I didn’t want to believe in God.

Yet we are also told that faith is a gift, but a gift which can nevertheless be developed. So when God gives someone faith, He also influences their will. And to go to the next stage of believing in the Christian God, there must be a specific element of faith given, viz. Christ is Lord.

Therefore I believe that some sort of “faith” is necessary before one can believe in God, or that God exists. Einstein was not a Christian, but he believed in some sort of creator, so he was not an atheist either. Therefore he had some sort of faith, and his basis was not sheer intellectualism. He was willing to believe God existed.
 
Fascinating, Bob. I very much agree about wanting, and about the associated idea of the “assemblage point.”

Last night on TV I heard and interesting turn of phrase that applies to* want*: “Desire shattered the void into the manifestation of Creation. It exploded nothingness into the existance of everything.”
 
“Faith” is ambiguous. If you mean the Theological virtue of faith, then the answer is no. There are certain natural faiths that are necessary for the belief in God, and necessary, furthermore, for human thought. One such necessary bits of natural faith is the belief that our minds are able to perceive reality as it really exists. If we don’t accept that truth on faith (for it cannot be proven) then we logically deny ourselves the right to think at all in any meaningful way.

But God’s existence clearly can be known, as is evident throughout history for most people, even though they lacked Christian Theological faith. What is the point then of Theological Faith?

Well, the Theological virtue of faith gives us knowledge of specifically Christian truths, such as Christ’s divinity, birth, death, resurrection, and so forth. It is the kinds of things we can’t know just by being human … they need to be revealed to us.

It is the difference between being a Theist and a Christian. Just because you can know that God exists by natural reason, doesn’t mean you are going to be saved. You also need to have faith about Christ, which is only possible by faith. Mere knowledge in the existence of God is insufficient for your salvation. You need to know Christ, by faith. There. There’s your answer.
Excellent points. Do you think the “rich man” who was asked by Christ to follow Him … had any faith … but still walked away?

I can say in my own life that I have experienced Christ … but that does not mean that I always follow Him. In fact, there are times I spit in His face … and put more nails in His hands and feet … even in the face of knowing this Christ loves me … and brought me into existence. Knowlege then does not automatically mean Faith … which you Areopagite expressed so well.
 
I’ve often wondered about this. Are people with no faith truly reasonable?
Again, an excellent question!!!

It is my opinion that people who deny that God exists (for whatever reason) somehow have not yet reasoned clearly yet. Because clear reason should bring a person to the understanding and reality that God does exist.

But Faith on the other hand, is a whole different story. Why do people who do acknowledge that God exists (which I personally don’t think is an act of faith - but clear reasoning) … why then do they continue to do evil?

I can only look at myself in the mirror to ask that question - because I know its true of me as well. Is it really because of not being reasonable … or is there something else going on that underneath gives rise to disobedience? I have to think about this one … not an easy thing to answer.
 
No. When one has a certain amount of specific types of encounters with I guess you could call it the paranormal you tend to know there’s more to life then what we experience with our five senses.
 
The fact that God exists is known by reason, see St. Thomas Aquinas’ Quinquae Viae (Five ways, five arguments which prove the existence of God a priori).

The existence of God was a pre-Christian topic being discussed by Aristotle and Plato, St. Thomas wanted to establish the existence of God based on reason alone, and used Aristotle as a base (not “Baptizing” Aristotle as some people erroneously claim) but Aquinas applied his own brilliant, brilliant, thoughts, and we see God is clearly provable by reason.

Some “attributes” of God that St. Aquinas showed were provable by reason were that God could not be moved because then something would have to have existed before him and because everything is dependent on God this could not be. Also God must be completely simple because if he were made up of parts then those parts would of have to have been made and because God is not made this is impossible. There are several others which I suggest you read in his Compendium.

However some “attributes” of God have to be taken as a matter of Faith. “Attributes” such as the Holy Trinity.

So we see the existence of God is known by reason, but faith is still needed to understand him completely. (Notice you can’t know different “parts” of God because he has no “parts!” :D).

Laus Deo
Thank you for sharing that 🙂
 
Excellent points. Do you think the “rich man” who was asked by Christ to follow Him … had any faith … but still walked away?

I can say in my own life that I have experienced Christ … but that does not mean that I always follow Him. In fact, there are times I spit in His face … and put more nails in His hands and feet … even in the face of knowing this Christ loves me … and brought me into existence. Knowlege then does not automatically mean Faith … which you Areopagite expressed so well.
Thank you for your comments. I’m glad I was getting through.

Did the rich man have faith? Well, I think the answer is yes. Whenever someone is aware, for example, that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, then he has faith, but that faith does not necessitate his will to choose to follow him. This happens plenty of times in my own spirituality. I know that Christ is God, but that doesn’t make me a saint. Someone else has expressed this same tension between the mind and the will…
Again, an excellent question!!!

Why do people who do acknowledge that God exists (which I personally don’t think is an act of faith - but clear reasoning) … why then do they continue to do evil?

I can only look at myself in the mirror to ask that question - because I know its true of me as well. Is it really because of not being reasonable … or is there something else going on that underneath gives rise to disobedience? I have to think about this one … not an easy thing to answer.
It’s a very tough question to answer, but don’t worry, it’s not completely shrouded in mystery.

Protestants have promoted the myth that we are saved by faith alone. But many mortal sinners have faith … that is, many people who have lost the theological virtue of charity due to a sin oftentimes still believes that Christ is the Son of God. That’s why mortal sinners are able to go to confession. They still believe, but they have at some points lost the love of God that is necessary for salvation.

However, if someone has faith in God … why do they not automatically follow him? It would seem to make sense.

Part of the answer is that the mind (wherein faith resides) is not the same as the will (wherein hope and love reside). Just because you know (in your mind) that it is right to do something, you still have to choose to do it (with your will). The more we choose God with our will (which is only made possible with grace, of course), the greater love we will have for him. Because of will being wounded by original sin, our will is not inclined for God as much as it should be. That is why there is struggle to love and obey God, even when we believe Him.

There is a reasonable objection to this: isn’t our sins due to our lack of faith? That is, if we had true, well-formed, perfect faith, wouldn’t we naturally avoid sin no problem? Isn’t our sins due to our unwillingness to believe? In short, the answer is yes.

However, if I’m not mistaken, fully formed faith is an oxymoron. Faith is partially seeing and not seeing. If we saw God perfectly, it would not be faith but perfect knowledge (as it is in heaven). If we didn’t see anything of God, it would not be faith either because some knowledge is required for faith (like, some knowledge about Jesus Christ, the Trinity, etc.). So faith is seeing and not seeing … a shadowy knowledge it is sometimes called.

Now, Aquinas and others believe that if you had perfect knowledge of God, then you could not choose against Him … everything would be so clear to you that you can’t possibly come up with false excuses to not follow him. In this world, however, we can only know God by faith, and thus there is enough darkness in our minds to not be overwhelmed by the truth … but to darken our minds further by means our will.

Is this making sense?

So the protestant notion that if we had full and complete faith doesn’t make sense. Only in the Beatific Vision can we have full knowledge of God and thus not be able to choose against God. Since we have imperfect knowledge (which is faith, though it is a kind of knowledge nonetheless), we have enough room in our souls to push that knowledge aside and follow other gods. The more we grow in faith, however, the harder it is reject God because we are seduced, as it were, by the truth, for our will naturally longs for God when our mind starts seeing Him more and more.
 
Again, an excellent question!!!

It is my opinion that people who deny that God exists (for whatever reason) somehow have not yet reasoned clearly yet. Because clear reason should bring a person to the understanding and reality that God does exist.

But Faith on the other hand, is a whole different story. Why do people who do acknowledge that God exists (which I personally don’t think is an act of faith - but clear reasoning) … why then do they continue to do evil?

I can only look at myself in the mirror to ask that question - because I know its true of me as well. Is it really because of not being reasonable … or is there something else going on that underneath gives rise to disobedience? I have to think about this one … not an easy thing to answer.
Thank you 🙂 Perhaps I shall continue to ask questions. But first, an answer. Socrates (I think it was Socrates) believed (and I think he believed it) that we never do something that we know is evil, but we do things that are evil because we believe it to be good (however fleetingly). So perhaps you are right that when I do evil, I am not being reasonable.
 
I’ve often wondered about this. Are people with no faith truly reasonable?
I don’t think so , for that would imply that they choose to continue living without any absolute reason to carry on. That is unreasonable.
Modern life has enough relative pleasures and distractions that many have fooled themselves into thinking that life on its own is worth living, and certainly modern life has given enough diversions and recreations and challenges that the idea that life on its own is worth it, but overall it is reasonable to conclude that life is an exercise in futility without faith in God promising that there will be light at the end of the tunnel.
Overall, human life is nasty, brutish and short all is but a fair, full of sound and fury signifying nothing.

Nietzche was a prophet of life without God as being worth it for the select few at least, that the suffering that was the bane of existence was in fact a great reward. Post-Auschwitz, nobody really much buys that argument anymore.

The passion that people employ to the argument that life without God is a reasonable proposition varies inversely with the number of children they themselves have. Therein lies the difference between true reason and mere rationalization.

Without God, the culture of death is the reasonable course to take.
 
I don’t think so , for that would imply that they choose to continue living without any absolute reason to carry on. That is unreasonable. I know that there is an Absolute, and I completely disagree with you. There are excellent reasons not depending on faith that are very reasonable.
Modern life has enough relative pleasures and distractions that many have fooled themselves into thinking that life on its own is worth living, Life on its own is all there is, faith or not. And faith isn’t restricted to religious faith, either.and certainly modern life has given enough diversions and recreations and challenges that the idea that life on its own is worth it,Of course it is worth it. You have no clue what other people might lve for, even if some live in despair. Some of the most despairing, desperte people I have ever known were people of faith but overall it is reasonable to conclude that life is an exercise in futility without faith in God promising that there will be light at the end of the tunnel.Life is the Light to living without a tunnel
Overall, human life is nasty, brutish and short all is but a fair, full of sound and fury signifying nothing. "A tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing. Macbeth, act 5, scene 5, Sounds like pious faith to me, as well as faithlessness.
Nietzche was a prophet of life without God as being worth it for the select few at least, that the suffering that was the bane of existence was in fact a great reward. Post-Auschwitz, nobody really much buys that argument anymore.?

The passion that people employ to the argument that life without God is a reasonable proposition varies inversely with the number of children they themselves have.??? Therein lies the difference between true reason and mere rationalization.Wherein?

Without God, the culture of death is the reasonable course to take.
You speak as if God is a choice. God is not a choice, faith is a choice, and faith may not be a way to God. You sound like someone who is interpreting things through piety, not reason.
 
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